Oberlin Women in Medicine

Oberlin Women in Medicine

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, discrimination against women attempting to pursue most career paths was an unfortunate reality, and the medical field was no exception. Despite these barriers, women of the Oberlin and Cleveland areas were instrumental in developing their local medical communities during this period. They were not only practicing medical professionals, but some even founded their own hospitals and clinics. Many were also politically active and prominent members of their local communities. Some dedicated their lives to the field and the improvement of medical access in their local areas; others were active in public spheres such as music, literature, or even film.

In the United States during the 1850s, only one practical option was available to women who wanted to obtain a medical degree: attend a designated women’s medical school. Coeducation in medical schools only started to become normalized around the turn of the twentieth century. The establishment of all-female medical schools made enrollment for women easier than if they had been competing against men to enroll in coeducational schools. However, the educational system’s segregation of genders fostered the notion that women’s colleges were less credible than men’s, and this rendered funding and resources difficult to acquire. Many of the women’s medical schools eventually closed after receiving poor ratings in the Flexner Report of 1910, which rated medical schools based on credibility.

Once medical schools were integrated, however, the transparent sexism present at these schools was difficult to overcome. Male students, often unchecked by their professors, harassed female students in lecture halls and demonstrations with rowdy behavior, even throwing small objects or spitting at them. In addition, there was an occupational stigma attached with being a female physician. Women physicians were confined to positions that were considered better suited to their talents—in other words, positions based on “essentialist notions of femininity.” For this reason, women typically practiced medicine related to child care, hygiene, and women’s health. Male physicians who were at the forefront of the medical profession justified the women’s presence in the medical profession with the claim that women related to patients differently than male physicians. The prevailing thought was that women were better suited to matters of the emotional and family sphere rather than what was considered the rational world of medicine. Despite facing many barriers to practicing medicine, women persevered and continued to study and practice throughout the United States.

Women who wished to practice medicine often turned to the world of homeopathy. The practice of homeopathic medicine is based on the concept of “like curing like”, meaning that someone who is ill should be administered that which causes similar effects as the illness to cure it. Often, this meant that substances that would normally be hazardous to people were diluted down to the point of having the same properties of water and given to the patient. Homeopathic practitioners would decide which dilution to use on someone who was unwell by examining their psyche, life history, and personality alongside their illness.* (* It should be noted that recent studies about homeopathy have been published that explore the effectiveness of the practice, including one done in 2015 by Australia’s National Health and Medical Research Council.)

Unlike many other fields of medicine, homeopathy frequently presented a more appealing option for women physicians as a “forward-looking alternative to the male-dominated culture of the regular profession.” At the time that homeopathy was popular during the nineteenth century, many medical practices were highly dangerous and caused more harm to a patient than good. Homeopathy, although largely ineffective, would sometimes be a safer option than exposing the patient to further disease. In the homeopathic school of medicine, women held leadership positions in organizations and were allowed to be testers for medicines, which was not allowed in “regular medicine.” Eventually, homeopathy fell out of practice because of several provable claims regarding its ineffectiveness in addition to advances in other fields of medicine. However, it should be noted there continues to be periodic resurgences in the popularity and practice of homeopathy.

For African American female physicians, it was increasingly more difficult to be considered credible and to be treated with the same respect compared to white female physicians. African American physicians, male and female, were typically hygienists and had difficulty finding medical positions in other fields. Hygiene was considered one of the less prestigious professions in the health care system at the time. Unfortunately, the perspective of hygiene as a lesser form of medicine caused many African American patients to seek treatment from white physicians, rather than African American physicians. However, white physicians in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries would often treat African American patients with a lower standard of care and dedication than they would their white patients. Instead of listening to their family histories, white physicians often diagnosed and prescribed treatments to African American patients based solely on superficial symptoms. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many female doctors in the U.S. began to focus on physical education as an important area of health. In the late 1800s, fitness was commercialized, women adopted new patterns of work and leisure, and the popular health movement gained steam. Opportunities for female fitness expanded, and women exercised in dance halls, rode horseback, patronized gymnasiums, and began to take gymnastic classes in college. Early female physical educators, such as Delphine Hanna, the first Director of the Women’s Gymnasium at Oberlin College, pioneered the field of physical education. These female doctors frequently confronted anxieties and concerns about the potential consequences of female exercise that pervaded the beliefs of many Americans.

The following Oberlin women who practiced medicine faced many challenges throughout their careers. Their biographies provide insight not only into the practice of medicine during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but also into the hardships and triumphs present in women physicians’ everyday lives. This is only a brief overview, however, and not all women practicing at this time have been included.

Alice Bertha Foster (1866-1937)

“Women are taking places in the industrial, commercial and intellectual world today as integers, no longer as fractions, and what one part of the body politic requires that does another.”

Alice Bertha Foster was born in Massachusetts on September 11, 1866 and graduated from Dr. Sargent’s Training School for Teachers in 1886.11 Her ensuing higher education and career path exhibit her lifelong passion for women’s physical education. She studied in Baron Posse’s Normal Class in Practice in Boston, as well as in the Harvard Summer School of Physical Education. From 1886 to 1892, Foster acted as the Director of the Buffalo Sanitary Gymnasium of the Women’s Educational and Industrial Union. In 1889 and 1890, she was an assistant teacher at the Harvard Summer School of Physical Education. Dr. Foster received her M.D. (Doctor of Medicine) from the University of Buffalo in 1891. She was then hired by the University of Chicago in 1892 as a tutor in Physical Culture, which made her the head of the women’s work, and in 1894, Dr. Foster went on to work as the Director of the Gymnasium at Bryn Mawr College. At Bryn Mawr, Dr. Foster coached a women’s basketball team and advocated for basketball as a sport that could teach women important skills to navigate the rapid pace of the industrial era. In an article on basketball, Dr. Foster wrote:

Each player must snatch his chance from others and pass it to others, and his only chance of prominence is in the excellence of that passing. Is not that characteristic of the nineteenth century? … Should girls play so? The game is violent, the interest intense, the nervous strain severe, and the chance of accident large, if it is played according to men’s rules… Have girls any use for such training and practice! Yes,—a thousand times yes!

In 1899, Dr. Foster arrived at Oberlin College and became the Director of the Woman’s Gymnasium under a one year contract. In 1899, Dr. Foster helped found and became the chair of the National Section for Girls’ and Women’s Sports, which was part of the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, a department of the National Education Association. This department is now known as the Division for Girls’ and Women’s Sports. While working in Oberlin, Dr. Foster was known for organizing skating events for the college. Dr. Foster passed away in Wakefield, Massachusetts on December 21, 1937, at the age of 71. Alice Bertha Foster’s work has contributed significantly to women’s sports and the development of women’s sports in the United States, especially through her work in promoting women’s basketball.

Delphine Hanna (1854-1941)

 “One of Oberlin’s pioneer women.”

Delphine Hanna was born in Markesan, Wisconsin on December 2, 1854 and spent her childhood in Fairport, New York. In 1874, Hanna graduated from Brockport State Normal School, and in 1885 she graduated from her two-year course at Sargent School of Physical Education, where she was one of twelve women in her course. She recalled that there were no skeletons or separated bones with which to learn anatomy, and as a result, she spent many hours observing the structures of bones that were kept in museums. While working as a grade school teacher in Fairport in 1884 while studying, Hanna realized her passion for making a change in the physical activities of both teachers and students. She moved to Boston for a brief period to take night classes at the Curry School of Expression, where she learned the Delsarte method, a system used in music and drama that stresses poise and balance, which later influenced Hanna’s understanding of physical education. Around this time, Hanna continued to develop her anatomical knowledge while taking private lessons with Dr. Bradford in lateral spinal curvature.

In 1885, Hanna became the Director of the Women’s Gymnasium of Oberlin College. As the first person to take this position, Hanna essentially created the program from scratch. Hanna first lived and worked with female students at the Ladies Hall gym, also known as the Music Hall, located where Talcott now stands. During her first year, she cleaned up the gym, made gym suits for the women, and ordered supplies for equipment which she had workers assemble under her own direction. Hanna also taught classes for female students and faculty, public school children, and even male college students. Some of the male students she taught criticized her classes and dismissed them as dance classes. However, when the dean came to inspect her work, Hanna showed him that though there were elegant steps involved, the classes were rigorous, and the dean allowed her to continue her course. In her first year, Hanna created one of the first four-year degree programs in physical education in the United States. The program was given official recognition in 1901. Hanna’s curriculum included anatomy, physiology, massage, medical corrective exercises, hygiene, elocution, aesthetic dancing, and formal dancing. She also created two-year teacher-training courses on physical education. Shortly after the Ladies Hall burned down in January 1886, Hanna and her women students relocated to Baldwin Hall and made use of Warner Gymnasium, the men’s gym.

While working at Oberlin, Hanna continued to pursue her academic studies, and remained involved in the medical community. In 1887, she attended summer sessions at Harvard University, and in 1890, she received her M.D. from the University of Michigan. In 1892, Delphine became a member of the Women’s Board of Managers. She attended Cornell University in 1898 and received an A.B. (Bachelor of Arts) from Cornell University in 1901 as well as an A.M. (Master of Arts) from Oberlin College where she had enrolled in classes for one year.

By January 1902, Delphine Hanna’s position title had changed to Director of Women’s Physical Training at Oberlin College, and by 1903 she was a member of the Oberlin College faculty. While living and working in Oberlin, she was also a member of Second Congregational Church in Oberlin.

Dr. Hanna retired in 1920. Upon her retirement, she was the first woman to receive the Carnegie Pension, which is a pension plan distributed by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. By 1930, she was living in Rochester, New York as the head of the household and held no occupation. Dr. Hanna had many achievements to her name. Not only was she successful in creating the Women’s Physical Education program at Oberlin, one of the first of its kind, but she also had many scientific publications of anthropometric (defined as pertaining to the measurement of the human body) charts under her name, which led Oberlin College to give her an honorary Master of Arts Degree. She is also known as one of the first people in the United States to understand the importance of the scientific basis of physical education.

Dr. Hanna passed away in Castile, New York on April 16, 1941. Dr. Gertrude Evelyn Moulton, the Head of the Department of Physical Education in 1941, represented Oberlin College at her funeral. In her will, Dr. Hanna left a portion of her estate to Oberlin College under the condition that it be used as a fund for women students in Physical Education.

Julia P. Chapin Jump (1832-1897)

“If the patient be irritable, cross, cannot speak a civil word, chamomilla will relieve the nervous irritation and make her happy.”

Julia P. Chapin was born in Vernon, New York on January 20, 1832. Chapin soon moved with her parents to Amherst, Ohio, where she spent much of her childhood and became a teacher at the age of 17, with her wages in her early years adding up to just a dollar per week. Chapin would continue to teach for the next thirty years of her life. On November 8, 1852, at the age of 20, Chapin married Rufus E. Jump, a Lorain County farmer and basket-maker. The couple had a son named Giles the next year. In pursuit of a college education, Chapin Jump moved with her family to Oberlin in 1858 and attended the Oberlin College prep school until 1860. She continued her education at Oberlin College, where she majored in Literature. However, shortly after Chapin Jump enrolled in Oberlin College, the Civil War broke out, and left a great impact on her family life. In 1862, her husband Rufus entered the Civil War. That same year, she travelled to Camp Dennison to treat wounded soldiers. In July, Chapin Jump sent a letter to Oberlin, describing the plight of the soldiers at Camp Dennison, many of whom were undernourished, despite the many provisions that communities had sent to them:

In respect to diet the soldiers do not fare so well. […] They have no butter although their appetite craves it more than almost anything else. […] The stewards, waiters, nurses and other officers of the ward […] have butter three times a day. The poor sick soldiers can see these things, but cannot taste them. 

By reporting the unfair portioning of food in the camp, Chapin Jump alerted citizens to issues concerning the soldiers’ treatment and called for wrongs to be addressed. Although the Civil War changed the lives of those who were involved, it did not stop Jump from graduating from Oberlin College and receiving her L.B. (Bachelor of Law) in 1865. After graduating college, she worked on and off as a public school teacher until 1883.

In 1884, Dr. Chapin Jump graduated from the Cleveland Homeopathic Medical College. Between 1886 and 1887, she lived at 364 North Main Street in Oberlin, where she also had her practice. While working in Oberlin, Dr. Chapin Jump wrote many detailed articles describing her medical experiences and the homeopathic remedies she employed to treat patients. In one colorful medical adventure, she revealed her inclination towards self-experimentation with potential homeopathic remedies by detailing her experience taking Glonoin (nitroglycerin), an ingredient now commonly used in heart medication:

Instantly I felt a wonderful expansion of the pharynx laterally and upward, with a sensation of enlargement of the brain, accompanied by a bursting headache. Then a sensation of an explosion of the brain, throwing the fractured skull upward, as though an explosion had occurred in the attic of a house, throwing the roof with the rafters upward. The symptoms gradually abated, though I felt no appetite for lunch.

In her writings, Dr. Chapin Jump revealed her deep convictions in the merits of homeopathic practices, despite the stigma associated with homeopathy, as well as her willingness to experiment with new techniques and remedies. By 1890, her physician’s office was located on 17 West College Street in Oberlin, numbered 7 West College at the time. Dr. Chapin Jump passed away in Oberlin on March 15, 1897 at the age of 65. Remaining deeply committed to her patients and her work, she continued to treat patients while suffering from poor health, and even made her usual rounds to visit her patients on her last day. Dr. Chapin Jump is buried in Westwood Cemetery in Section H, Lot #033.

Cliffe Updegraff Johnson Merriam (1867-1943)

 “It’s the girls that I love to work with. Their big problem now is to reconcile professional life and family life, and some way will have to be found so that they won’t have to discard either.”

Cliffe Updegraff Johnson was born in Oberlin, Ohio on July 3, 1867. Johnson hailed from a prominent family, as her father was the President of Citizen’s National Bank, the president of the Oberlin Bank Company in 1890, and the President of the Arkansas Midland Railroad in 1887. Both Johnson’s mother and her grandmother were Quaker women who worked toward social change, and it was from them that she developed her passion for religious and social movements.

Johnson enrolled in the Oberlin College prep school from 1884-1885, and then studied further at the college and conservatory from 1885-1887. In 1895, Dr. Johnson graduated from the Cleveland Medical College and from the Department of Medicine at the College of Wooster, which is now part of the Western Reserve University. Dr. Johnson then graduated from Wooster College in Wayne County, Ohio in 1896 with an M.D. By November of 1897, she had returned to Oberlin to live with her family. On August 14, 1909, she married Dr. Walter Henry Merriam in Chicago after a ten-year long engagement. Dr. Merriam was from Oberlin and was a physician who worked in LaGrange, Ohio. Interestingly, while Dr. Johnson-Merriam was listed as a physician, she never practiced medicine because her husband was a doctor and she felt that two doctors in one house would be too much.

Although she never actively practiced medicine, Dr. Johnson-Merriam became involved in many medical organizations throughout her life and displayed great passion for her work promoting women’s health. From 1920 to 1922, she served as the President of the Phillis Wheatley Association for Colored Girls of Cleveland and from 1923 to 1928 served as its Vice-President. At the same time, from 1921 to 1925, she served as the President of the Young Women’s Christian Association (Y.W.C.A.) of Cleveland. During her last year there, Dr. Johnson-Merriam also served as Vice-President and Trustee of the Welfare Federation of Cleveland and became the first female member of the Cleveland Community Fund, serving on the Investigative Committee and Community Fund. In 1926, Dr. Johnson-Merriam was given an honorary A.M. from Oberlin College. She served as a Trustee of both the Women’s Hospital in Cleveland, and of the Visiting Nurses’ Association of Cleveland. She was also one of the founders of the Girls Bureau and was on the board of the Travelers Aid Society. In 1930, she became a Trustee of Oberlin College. Dr. Johnson-Merriam passed away in Hollywood, California on March 19, 1943.

Gertrude Evelyn Moulton (1880-1964)

“Gertrude Evelyn Moulton… has made physical education for women her life work, and carries it on with enthusiasm and understanding at Oberlin College.”

Gertrude Evelyn Moulton was born in Rio Grande, Ohio, on June 5, 1880. She grew up as the only girl among her four brothers. Moulton moved to Cleveland by 1899 and studied at Oberlin College from 1899-1900 and from 1901-1903, where she received both an A.B. and a P.T. She also studied at Western Reserve University from 1900 to 1901. Moulton received her second A.B. from Rio Grande College in 1905. After graduating, Moulton served as supervisor of physical training for the Cleveland Board of Education until 1907. By 1912, Moulton had become a teacher and the Director of Physical Training for Women at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Moulton began to study at the University of Illinois College of Medicine during this time, and she graduated as salutatorian in 1917 with a Bachelor of Science and in 1919 with an M.D. Throughout her life, she attended summer sessions at multiple universities and eventually received an M.A. from New York University.

Beginning in 1923, Dr. Moulton came to Oberlin to work as the Director of the Women’s Gymnasium for Oberlin College. She assumed the position as Director after the death of Helen Finney Cochran, who directed the Women’s Gymnasium for a brief period following the retirement of former director Dr. Delphine Hanna in 1920. The subjects she taught in that position included physical education, hygiene, first aid, massage, physiology, physical exam and diagnosis, and medical gymnastics. Dr. Moulton took up her position as Director of the Women’s Gymnasium at Oberlin with gusto, and became known for regularly helping to take students out by car on excursions to the physical education camp on Lake Erie, and to a swimming pool in Elyria. As an Oberlin College faculty member, Dr. Moulton taught courses related to physical education and physical education training. She was honored with the Distinguished Service Award from the American Physical Education Association in 1931.

In an article she wrote for The Journal of Health and Physical Education in June 1933, Dr. Moulton explained what she saw were the trends in the lack of physical education in school. She stressed the importance of making physical exercise part of one’s daily routine and discipline — advice which remains relevant today. Out of a rigorously-scheduled day, Dr. Moulton suggested having two hours set aside for extra-curricular activities and physical movement.

Dr. Moulton continued to live in Oberlin until 1961. Some of Dr. Moulton’s highlighted accomplishments while working at Oberlin include the construction of Crane Pool, Galpin Field, and Hales Gymnasium, where exercise and athletic events are still held today. Dr. Moulton retired from the Oberlin College faculty in 1945 and later went on to teach at University of Michigan and Rio Grande College. By 1955, Dr. Moulton was recognized as an Emeritus Professor of Hygiene and Physical Education and an Emeritus Director of the Women’s Gymnasium at Oberlin College.

Dr. Moulton never married, and remained active in her retirement, taking trips abroad to France and England into her seventies. She was nationally recognized in her field, and in 1961, was the second woman in history to receive the Hetherington Award of the Academy of Physical Education, which honors the most outstanding member of the Academy of Physical Education (now called the American Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education). Dr. Moulton displayed a lifelong devotion to civil service by volunteering for the American Red Cross for 45 years, and by serving as the Director of the Elyria Chapter before it merged with the Lorain Chapter. In her later years, Dr. Moulton retained a strong commitment to leading a healthy, physically active life, and continued to take canoe trips until the age of 81. On June 25, 1964 at the age of 84, she passed away at Allen Memorial Hospital. In her honor, a Dr. Moulton Scholarship was created at Oberlin College, to be awarded to an outstanding woman in the field of physical education each year.

Other notable women doctors and their short biographies are included below.

 

Martha Ann Robinson Canfield

Dr. Martha Ann Robinson Canfield (1845-1916) graduated from the Oberlin Collegiate Course in 1868. She attended the Cleveland Homeopathic College for Women after the Cleveland Homeopathic School of Medicine stopped admitting women. She was a homeopathic physician and was among the earliest women in Northern Ohio to practice medicine as a profession. She followed Myra Merrick as the second president of the Women’s and Children’s Free Medical and Surgical Dispensary Society (1900) and helped create its successor, Woman’s General Hospital. Canfield presided both over the Hospital and its Board of Trustees (1912-16), was a charter member of Maternity Hospital, and directed the Canfield-White Hospital. She also studied in Germany and France. Canfield blended her teaching and medical interests, becoming a professor of gynecology at the Homeopathic College (1890-97). She was also active in philanthropy, especially with the Federated Charities. Canfield belonged to the Cleveland Hospital Council, Cleveland Sorosis, the Women’s Press Club of Cleveland, and the College Club of Cleveland.

Ellen Hawkins

Ellen Hawkins moved to Oberlin ten years after the death of her husband, where she lived with her two sisters for one year. She returned later to start her medical practice in 1897, after she found the Oberlin atmosphere to be congenial. In the same year and at age 52, she received her doctorate of medicine from the Cleveland Homeopathic Hospital Medical College. She was able to maintain a reasonably large clientele of women and children patients for many years thanks to her quiet and confident manner. Her office was located at 33 West College Street in Oberlin, where it is said that she was still able to climb the long upwards staircase up until one week before her death at age 86. Hawkins never retired.

Georgia Newman

 Dr. Georgia Newman came to Oberlin in 1982, after practicing in Mechanicsburg, Ohio. Newman joined the Clinic as the fourth intern in what is now the pediatrics area. She first got involved with the hospital focusing on quality assurance, which eventually became performance improvement. When she was elected, she was known for trying to reform the traditional way of doing things, stating it as a very interesting and rewarding challenge for her. She attended Vassar College, at the time a women’s college, before studying at Dartmouth Medical School, and then finishing at Harvard University in 1971. She also interned at the Cambridge Hospital.

Jeanne McKibben

It was during her internship and residency at the Cleveland Clinic Foundation that Jeanne McKibben MD heard of Oberlin, having an existing interest in small towns. She practiced at the Oberlin Clinic until August 1979, but unfortunately was forced to retire earlier than intended due to medical liability insurance costs. The Clinic was also suffering serious economic struggles, and she subsequently moved to work at the Allen Hospital in Oberlin, which was also facing financial difficulty.From then on, her focus was working on reform. She described the state of Ohio as being in a “crisis” regarding this issue, about which she felt strongly. She was elected Eleventh District Councilor of the Ohio State Medical Association in Dayton (1996). In addition to lobbying efforts, she was active with the Oberlin Rotary Club and the Oberlin Historical and Improvement Organization (now known as the Oberlin Heritage Center). She has a strong interest in scuba diving and is an avid videographer, the latter interest leading her to make presentations and videos about the medical history of Oberlin, including the collection of medical-related oral histories which have been archived by the Oberlin Heritage Center.

Jeanne Stephens 

Jeanne Stephens was born and raised in Columbia, MO, and was a graduate of Oberlin College in 1933. She went on to receive a B.S. degree in Medicine from the University of Missouri in 1935 and her M.D. from the University of Michigan in 1937. She and her husband moved to Oberlin in 1942 where they opened a joint practice. In 1962, Stephens and her husband became two of the seven founders of the Oberlin Clinic. She was an alumni trustee of Oberlin College from 1968-1980 and an honorary trustee until her death. Additionally, she donated her time and expertise to the Oberlin community and Lorain County, as the chairperson of the medical staff of Allen Memorial Hospital. She also participated in the Oberlin City Health Commission, the Center for Sightless, the Lorain County Medical Society, Ohio State Medical Association and the American Cancer Society. Additionally, she also served on the Oberlin Schools District PTO, the Oberlin Board of Education and the League of Women Voters. She was an active member of First Church in Oberlin. She and her husband were among the first residents of Kendal at Oberlin. Their work to bring Kendal to Oberlin led to the facility’s health center being named the Stephens Care Center in 1999, as they were dedicated to the continuing care of their community. Dr. Jeanne Stephens passed away at the age of 89 on Monday, September 25th, 2000.

Lillian Gertrude Towslee

Lillian Gertrude Towslee (1859-1918) graduated from the Oberlin Conservatory of Music in 1882. Following this, she taught music and studied medicine at the College of Wooster, graduating in 1888. After a few months of post-graduate work in New York City, Towslee opened a general practice in Cleveland. She helped found the Woman’s Hospital and, as its second president (1916-18), succeeded Martha Canfield. Additionally, she lectured, published, designed, and invested in real estate while maintaining an active medical practice.

 

Additional Women in Oberlin Medicine:

Judith Appleton

Mann-Mann Amy Chuang

Deborah Freeman

Barbara Kenney

Mary Louise McElwee

Florence L. McKay

Geetha Mohan

Joan Paige

Laurie Sabine

Pat Seiler

Edna Shrick

Vasanti N. Kharkar-Sharma

 

Do you have information about other Oberlin women in medicine? Contact us!

 

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Written by Nia Owen and Chloe Drummond

Edited by Katie Hirabayashi and Jennifer Gallagher

Revised and Edited, July 2020, by Jacob Selent, Miami University